If you read any global health publication—whether it be about injury prevention, non-communicable diseases or vaccines—you are likely to find a footnote in a table or a sentence in the statistical methods section indicating that the results were ‘controlled’ for sex or gender. Although the terms sex and gender are often used interchangeably in the […]
Sex and gender are not synonymous. Sex, unless otherwise specified, relates to biology: the gametes, chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs. Gender relates to societal roles, behaviours, and expectations that vary with time and place, historically and geographically. These categories describe different attributes that must be considered depending on the purpose they are intended for. The […]
The COVID-19 pandemic has brought to the fore the implications of sex and gender differences to human health and well-being. Evidence to date indicates that men are at higher risk of severe disease and death than women, while women seem more likely to suffer from long-term COVID-19, and experience negative social and economic impacts. Biological […]
The role of immunological differences between females and males in the responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection appears to be justified. There is ample evidence that antiviral immunity differs between the sexes. These are caused by e.g., sex steroid hormone signaling (i.e., testosterone, estrogens, and progesterone), genetics (e.g., immune function genes that escape X inactivation), and sex-specific […]
The number of COVID-19 cases appears to be comparable between men and women, but the severity of disease and death is two times greater for men than for women. History, including the 1918 influenza pandemic, warned us that male biases in COVID-19 could occur. In this Viewpoint, we focus on biological explanations, with a forward […]
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